What religions did Les place west of the Euphrates?
West of the Euphrates, the religions identified are Judaism, Muhammadism, and Christianity. These are distinguished from the predominantly pagan idolatrous religions located east of the Euphrates. Muhammadism is described as not akin to the pagan idolatrous religions of the east, while Christianity is also listed.
Les explains that the Euphrates is the great boundary between east and west, historically the major obstacle for those traveling from the east to the west. Religiously, he says, east of the Euphrates has always been predominantly pagan idolatrous religions. West of the Euphrates, he places Judaism, Muhammadism, and Christianity. He notes that Muhammadism is not akin to the pagan idolatrous religions of the east, and Christianity is also included among the religions west of the Euphrates.